CLIL in Colombia: Challenges and Opportunities for Bilingual Education

 In recent years, the Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) approach has been implemented in Colombia, aiming to enhance bilingual education by integrating foreign language instruction with academic content across various subjects. This pedagogical strategy seeks to address the diverse educational needs and contexts across the country. However, its success in transforming Colombia's educational system relies on a deep understanding and widespread application of its principles, methodologies, and curricular implications. A comprehensive pedagogical analysis of CLIL's implementation in Colombia reveals both challenges and opportunities for teachers and policymakers in the pursuit of quality education and internationalization.

Legislative Context and Language Policy in Colombia

The evolution of language education in Colombia has been shaped by a series of legislative reforms, aimed at improving foreign language proficiency, particularly in English. The importance of English as a global tool for communication and knowledge exchange has led the Colombian government to adopt several bilingual education policies. These include the National Bilingualism Program (2004–2019), the Program for the Strengthening of Foreign Languages (2010–2014), and the Colombia Bilingüe initiative (2014–2018), among others. These policies align with the goals set out in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, which seeks to ensure that Colombian students reach at least a B1 level of proficiency in English by the end of their schooling (British Council, 2017). The integration of CLIL into this framework aims to improve language proficiency through the study of content in other academic areas, offering a dual focus on language learning and subject matter understanding.

Challenges in Implementing CLIL

Despite its potential, the implementation of CLIL in Colombia faces significant challenges. Historically, the teaching of English in Colombia has been influenced by structuralist methods, such as the direct method and the audiolingual method, which prioritize language accuracy over communicative competence. This focus on grammatical correctness often neglects the development of critical thinking and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP), which are essential for understanding and applying content in a foreign language (Cummins, 2000).

Furthermore, as Bastidas and Muñoz (2017) explain, the large class sizes in Colombian schools during the 1980s hindered teachers' ability to provide individualized instruction, a problem exacerbated by insufficient teaching materials and a lack of teacher training. Although reforms aimed to address these issues, the professional development of foreign language teachers remains a significant challenge, as many educators continue to struggle with the transition from traditional structuralist methods to more communicative and content-based approaches like CLIL.

Another obstacle is the disparity between the proficiency levels of teachers and the expectations set by bilingual policies. Many bilingual teachers, despite having acquired basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS), have not developed the cognitive and academic language proficiency (CALP) required to teach content effectively in a foreign language. This gap in language competence makes it difficult for teachers to adapt the CLIL approach to the specific needs of their students, particularly in contexts that involve diverse cultural, geographical, and socio-economic backgrounds (Cummins, 2000).

Opportunities in CLIL Implementation

Despite these challenges, the CLIL approach offers several opportunities for enhancing education in Colombia. First, it fosters a more integrated and meaningful learning experience by encouraging students to use the foreign language in authentic, content-based contexts. This integration not only improves language skills but also supports the development of critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving abilities. By learning through content, students engage with the language in ways that are directly relevant to their academic and professional futures, thus increasing their motivation and engagement (Grabe & Stoller, 2011).

For CLIL to be successfully implemented, however, it is essential that school leaders initiate systemic changes within the educational environment. This includes facilitating collaboration between foreign language teachers and subject-matter teachers, ensuring that both parties work together to plan lessons that support both language and content objectives. Additionally, teachers must adapt their instructional strategies to meet the cognitive and linguistic needs of their students, using scaffolding techniques and visual organizers to aid comprehension and memory (Van de Craen, 2007). By promoting a learner-centered approach, teachers can encourage students to take an active role in constructing their knowledge and understanding, thereby fostering greater independence and self-regulation.

The development of a learner-centered, CLIL-based curriculum also requires teachers to consider the linguistic triptych: language for learning, language of learning, and learning through language. Language for learning refers to the specific vocabulary and structures needed to engage with academic content. The language of learning enables students to perform cognitive actions, such as processing, understanding, and applying information. Finally, learning through language refers to the emergent language that students produce as they demonstrate their developing cognitive and linguistic abilities during the learning process (Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010).

Conclusion

In conclusion, the CLIL approach in Colombia presents both challenges and opportunities. The historical legacy of structuralist teaching methods and the lack of teacher training in communicative and content-based approaches have hindered the widespread adoption of CLIL. However, with the commitment of teachers, school leaders, and policymakers, CLIL has the potential to transform language education by promoting not only communicative competence but also cognitive skills and critical thinking. Successful implementation will require systemic changes, including collaboration between subject and language teachers, as well as the development of a learner-centered, content-rich curriculum that meets the diverse needs of students.

References

British Council. (2017). English language teaching policies and practice in Colombia. British Council.

Bastidas, J. A., & Muñoz, G. (2017). La enseñanza del inglés en la educación secundaria en Colombia desde 1972 hasta 1994: Una historia desde los programas, los métodos y los textos. Editorial Universitaria, Universidad de Nariño.

Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). Content and language integrated learning: A guide for teachers. Cambridge University Press.

Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Multilingual Matters.

Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L. (2011). Teaching and researching reading. Pearson Education.

Van de Craen, P. (2007). CLIL: A European framework for the future. European Commission.

Language Policies in Colombia: Challenges and Implications for Linguistic Minorities

 Colombia's language policies are deeply rooted in the country's political constitution and educational frameworks. The Political Constitution of 1991 is a democratic document that emphasizes the protection of the rights of all Colombian citizens, particularly through its recognition of linguistic diversity. Article 10 of the Constitution declares Spanish as the official language of Colombia, while also granting official status to the languages and dialects of the country's ethnic groups within their respective territories. This provision underscores the commitment to bilingual education in communities with distinct linguistic traditions. However, despite these constitutional guarantees, the implementation of Bilingual Education Policies between 2004 and 2015—such as the National Bilingualism Program (2004-2019) and Colombia Bilingüe (2014-2018)—has not been sufficiently inclusive of the language rights of linguistic minorities, including indigenous, Afro-Colombian, Palenquera, and Raizales communities (Robayo & Cárdenas, 2017).

These policies, while structured and comprehensive, fail to fully address the participation of linguistic minorities in the creation and formulation of language policies that directly affect them. The Colombian state does not appear to recognize the fundamental human right to linguistic diversity, as outlined in ethno-educational frameworks. The Ethno-educational Approach, established in Decree 804 of 1995, recognizes linguistic diversity as a valuable expression of the unique ways ethnic groups perceive and interpret the world. The decree emphasizes that the languages of these communities should be respected and treated equally within the national reality. However, despite these legal provisions, the actions taken by public language policies often neglect to reflect this commitment, preventing the full realization of the constitutional guarantee of academic freedom as stipulated in Article 27 (Valencia, 2013).

One of the main issues with the Bilingual Education Policies is the limited conception of bilingualism they promote. These policies define bilingual citizens primarily as those who can communicate effectively in Spanish and English, with the latter seen as a foreign language to be learned within a controlled academic setting. This view reflects a longstanding dominance of Spanish, which has historically been the majority language in Colombia. According to Valencia (2013), Spanish has consistently overshadowed indigenous languages, particularly in educational and political contexts, contributing to the erosion of Colombia's linguistic diversity. Indigenous populations, along with Afro-Colombian, Palenquera, and Raizales communities, face the dual challenge of improving their proficiency in Spanish and learning English as a foreign language. This situation heightens the risk of cultural and linguistic assimilation, as these communities navigate bilingualism through policies influenced by global trends of economic, social, and technological globalization.

The Colombian government has strongly endorsed English proficiency as a key tool for participation in the global economy. According to the Ministry of National Education, English is seen as essential for international communication, access to knowledge, and socio-economic development. In this context, learning English is framed as a means to open borders, gain economic opportunities, and integrate into the globalized world. However, Wilches (2009), cited by Robayo & Cárdenas (2017), critiques this utilitarian approach to foreign language learning, arguing that it transforms language into a tool for economic and strategic purposes, rather than a means of cultural and cognitive development. This shift often results in language learning becoming a mere economic strategy to improve one’s resume, rather than a culturally enriching experience.

While the importance of English is undeniable in today's interconnected world, there is an underlying issue with the assumption that all knowledge is produced in English-speaking countries or is solely disseminated through English-language platforms. Escobar (2013) argues that this focus on English leads to a standardization of knowledge and values, undermining the significance of local knowledge, diversity, and cultural contexts. This trend, he contends, diminishes the educational value of diversity and encourages an approach that favors cultural homogenization, further exacerbating social inequalities. Escobar asserts that the global focus on English and standardization contributes to a deterioration of Colombia's educational system by turning knowledge into a commodity to be sold to the highest bidder, while excluding those who lack the resources to engage in such a system.

The failure of Colombia’s language policies is compounded by the overlapping and inconsistent nature of various government programs. Each presidential administration introduces new language policies, often ignoring or dismantling the plans set by previous governments. This lack of continuity hinders the effectiveness of bilingual education initiatives. Additionally, teachers are often left without sufficient time or resources to fully understand and implement the evolving bilingual policies. As a result, educators frequently face frustration when previously adopted methods are suddenly replaced with new, untested procedures (Ricento, 2006).

Ultimately, the lack of inclusivity and the narrow focus of language policies in Colombia have contributed to the perpetuation of social gaps and inequalities. Ricento (2006) highlights how traditional language policies have been applied in developed countries, under the assumption that they serve to integrate linguistic minorities into mainstream socio-economic systems. In Colombia, however, these policies have not succeeded in meeting the needs of linguistic minorities or in promoting genuine inclusivity. As a result, the implementation of bilingualism programs continues to face significant challenges, limiting their potential to foster a truly equitable society.

References

Escobar, W. Y. (2013). Identity-forming discourses: A critical discourse analysis on policy making processes concerning English language teaching in Colombia. PROFILE Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 15(1), 45–60.

Ricento, T. (Ed.) (2006). An introduction to language policy: Theory and method (chapters 1-11). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Robayo, L., & Cárdenas, M. (2017). Inclusive education and ELT policies in Colombia: Views from some profile journal authors. PROFILE Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 19(1).

Valencia, M. (2013). Language policy and the manufacturing of consent for foreign intervention in Colombia. PROFILE Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 15(1), 27–43.

Wilches, U. (2009). Language policy and the politics of education: A critical analysis of Colombia’s bilingual education initiatives.

Orientation for Research Proposal

When developing a research proposal focused on language attitudes, various socio-cultural, cognitive, and linguistic elements must be considered. The study of language and its relation to social phenomena such as prejudice, ethnocentrism, and identity provides valuable insights into how language influences and reflects societal dynamics. The following sections outline key concepts and variables to explore in a research proposal centered on language variation, language change, and intercultural competencies.

Research Focus

The primary focus of this research should be on understanding the complex relationship between language and social identity. Language attitudes, including prejudices and ethnocentrism, often arise from societal divisions and reflect underlying cognitive-linguistic variations. These attitudes, in turn, influence the ways people perceive and use language in different contexts. Cognitive-linguistic variation refers to the differences in language use that arise due to cultural, social, or personal factors, shaping how individuals understand and assert their identities (Gumperz, 1982). For example, language choice can signal a person's sense of belonging to a particular group or their self-assertion in different social contexts (Bucholtz & Hall, 2004).

Additionally, examining the phenomenon of language change across generations is critical to understanding linguistic evolution and the potential for language death. As language evolves, some languages or dialects may fade, contributing to language death—a process influenced by globalization, migration, and sociopolitical factors (Crystal, 2000). Understanding these shifts in language use is crucial for identifying how social and cultural factors impact the survival of language varieties, such as creoles and pidgins, as well as the borrowing of vocabulary across languages.

Discrimination and Implicit Bias

Language plays a key role in perpetuating or challenging discrimination. Implicit biases, often unacknowledged prejudices, can be communicated through language choices, such as accent, slang, or dialect use. These biases can influence perceptions of individuals or groups, contributing to the reinforcement of social hierarchies. For instance, individuals with non-standard accents or dialects may face stigmatization or marginalization in professional or social settings (Labov, 1972). Therefore, examining language use and its impact on discrimination is essential for promoting intercultural understanding and reducing bias.

Intercultural Competences

Intercultural competence refers to the ability to effectively and appropriately interact with people from different cultures. It involves understanding and navigating language and cultural differences, which can be facilitated by awareness of linguistic practices such as rituals, taboos, and liminality. Rituals and taboos, as cultural expressions, often influence language use in specific contexts, shaping communication norms. Liminality, the transitional space between different states or cultural experiences, may also involve unique linguistic practices, including hedging and the use of indirect speech acts (Turner, 1969).

Language Variation and Context

The study of language variety choices in multilingual communities provides insights into the factors that influence linguistic preferences. In these communities, individuals may select different language varieties based on context, function, and social factors. For instance, social variables such as gender, age, ethnicity, and social class play significant roles in determining how people choose their language varieties (Sociolinguistics, 2007). The social context—whether formal or informal—also impacts language use, with individuals often adopting different accents, vocabularies, or discourse patterns depending on the situation. Furthermore, factors such as function and the intended communicative purpose influence language choices, which can include the use of metaphors, proverbs, or euphemisms (Lakoff, 2004).

Dependent Variables

Language variation, including accent, slang, dialect, and discourse, constitutes the dependent variables in the study of language attitudes. These variables reflect the linguistic choices individuals make and are influenced by social, cognitive, and cultural factors. For example, accent and dialect usage can signal regional, ethnic, or social group affiliations, while vocabulary choices—such as slang and borrowed words—can demonstrate linguistic creativity and influence from external sources. The mental frames or cognitive structures that individuals use when interpreting language also play a role in shaping their language choices, as metaphors and proverbs can serve as vehicles for expressing cultural knowledge and values (Gibbs, 1994).

Independent Variables

Independent variables, including social variables and social factors, are crucial in determining language use patterns. These factors encompass social class, gender, ethnicity, and age, all of which can influence how individuals choose to communicate. Contextual factors, such as the setting (formal or informal), the topic of conversation, and the function of communication, further shape language choices. Understanding how these independent variables interact with language choice allows researchers to investigate how social identities and group memberships influence linguistic behavior (Eckert & McConnell-Ginet, 1992).

Conclusion

In summary, a research proposal on language attitudes and variation must consider a broad range of social, cognitive, and linguistic factors. By analyzing the interplay of language attitudes, prejudice, identity, and social variables, researchers can gain valuable insights into how language functions as both a reflection and a tool for social interaction. Additionally, by exploring dependent variables such as accent, slang, and dialect, alongside independent variables like social class and context, researchers can deepen their understanding of the dynamic relationship between language and society.

References

Bucholtz, M., & Hall, K. (2004). Language and identity. In A. Duranti (Ed.), A companion to linguistic anthropology (pp. 369-394). Blackwell Publishing.

Crystal, D. (2000). Language death. Cambridge University Press.

Eckert, P., & McConnell-Ginet, S. (1992). Think practically and look locally: Language and gender as a local practice. Annual Review of Anthropology, 21, 461-490.

Gibbs, R. W. (1994). The poetics of mind: Figurative thought, language, and understanding. Cambridge University Press.

Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse strategies. Cambridge University Press.

Labov, W. (1972). Sociolinguistic patterns. University of Pennsylvania Press.

Lakoff, G. (2004). Don’t think of an elephant! Chelsea Green Publishing.

Turner, V. (1969). The ritual process: Structure and anti-structure. Aldine Publishing.

Theories of Language Acquisition: A Comparative Analysis of Skinner and Chomsky

 The study of language, as presented by George Miller in Language and Communication (1963), highlights a scientific approach grounded in direct observation of individuals engaged in communication. Rather than relying on speculative discussions, Miller emphasizes the importance of linking these observations to existing scientific knowledge. This empirical approach underscores the value of studying language as a dynamic, observable behavior rather than abstract theorizing.

One theory that attempts to explain the origin of language in humans is based on the idea that speech movements may have evolved from gestures. For example, early humans may have resorted to vocalizing movements such as beckoning when their hands were occupied or in situations where nonverbal gestures were ineffective. In such instances, the act of making a beckoning gesture with the tongue while producing sound could have been interpreted by others as a meaningful signal, thus laying the groundwork for spoken language. This theory illustrates a behavioral perspective on communication, viewing speech not as an isolated phenomenon but as a form of vocal behavior akin to other physical actions. Speech, in this view, is an efficient form of communication that evolved to fulfill the same functions as nonverbal gestures, albeit more quickly and with greater precision.

The debate between B.F. Skinner and Noam Chomsky has shaped much of the discourse on language acquisition. Skinner, a leading figure in behaviorism, proposed that language acquisition occurs through reinforcement. According to Skinner, children learn language by associating words with meanings and receiving positive reinforcement for correct usage. For example, when an infant correctly says the word "milk" and is rewarded with milk, this reinforces the correct pronunciation and strengthens the association between the word and its meaning. Skinner’s ideas were influenced by John Locke’s concept of the “blank slate,” suggesting that humans are born without innate knowledge and that all behavior, including language, is learned through interaction with the environment. Skinner's work with operant conditioning, demonstrated through experiments with animals such as rats and pigeons, laid the foundation for his language acquisition theory, emphasizing the role of environmental stimuli and reinforcement.

In contrast, Noam Chomsky challenged Skinner’s behaviorist approach, asserting that language acquisition cannot be fully explained by reinforcement alone. Chomsky argued that children acquire language too rapidly and efficiently for this process to be attributed to reinforcement. He pointed out that if language were acquired solely through reinforcement, it would take much longer than two years for a child to master basic linguistic structures. Chomsky also argued that human beings possess a unique capacity for language, as evidenced by their ability to engage in complex communication, something that no other species can do. This led him to propose the theory of universal grammar, suggesting that all humans are born with an innate ability to acquire language. He further illustrated this with the example of Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee raised in an attempt to learn American Sign Language. Despite extensive training, Nim could only acquire a limited set of signs for basic needs, demonstrating the limitations of non-human animals in acquiring human language. Chomsky’s critique of Skinner’s behaviorist theory, alongside his notion of universal grammar, revolutionized the study of linguistics.

While Chomsky’s theory has gained broad acceptance in the scientific community, both Skinner and Chomsky have contributed valuable insights into our understanding of language. Skinner’s work has had practical implications, particularly in educational settings, where operant conditioning principles are used to reinforce language learning. On the other hand, Chomsky’s theory has inspired extensive research into the nature of language across different cultures and languages, particularly in the study of indigenous languages. For example, studies of isolated communities, such as an Amazonian tribe with no numeracy system, were influenced by Chomsky’s ideas, even when they were initially intended to challenge them.

In conclusion, the debate between Skinner and Chomsky highlights two important perspectives on language acquisition—behaviorism and innate cognitive structures. Both theories have contributed to our understanding of language development, and a biopsychosocial approach may suggest that both models are correct in some ways. The lack of a definitive conclusion has driven further exploration, leading to new studies and experiments that continue to shape the field of linguistics. The contributions of both Skinner and Chomsky have left a lasting legacy in the understanding of how humans acquire and use language.

References

Miller, G. (1963). Language and Communication. McGraw-Hill.

Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press.

Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. Copley Publishing Group.

Critical / Sensitive Period for Second Language Acquisition

 The ability to acquire a second language (L2) is thought to diminish after reaching puberty, a concept referred to as the "critical period" for language acquisition. This hypothesis, first proposed by E. Lenneberg in 1967, suggests that the brain's capacity for language learning decreases significantly as a person ages. The primary reason for this decline is a reduction in neural plasticity—the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt its structure and function in response to new experiences. As individuals reach puberty, specific brain areas responsible for language learning, such as the cerebral cortex, experience structural and chemical changes. These modifications, which include shifts in neurodensity, alterations in the white matter, and changes in the frequency of brain waves, contribute to a decrease in language learning potential.

Research on this hypothesis has profound implications for language teaching. It suggests that there are optimal times to begin learning a second language (L2) and that age may influence the most effective teaching approaches. Understanding when language learning abilities are at their peak could help educators determine the best age for introducing a second language, as well as the most appropriate teaching methods for learners of different ages.

To explore the validity of the critical period hypothesis, the study conducted by Jacqueline Johnson and Elissa Newport (1989) provides valuable insights. Their research examined whether the theoretical framework of the critical period could also be applied to second language acquisition. According to their theory, younger children should have an advantage over adults in acquiring a second language, leading to higher levels of proficiency in the language.

The study involved 46 participants, all native speakers of Chinese or Korean, who had learned English as a second language. The participants were selected based on the age at which they first encountered English. They were divided into two groups: early arrivals, who arrived in the U.S. before the age of 15, and late arrivals, who arrived after the age of 17. The researchers chose this age cut-off to investigate the influence of puberty on language acquisition. The participants were tested on their understanding of English syntax and morphology by judging the grammaticality of spoken English sentences. These sentences varied in complexity, testing rules related to English morphology (e.g., past tense, plural forms) and syntax (e.g., word order, question formation).

The results of the study revealed a strong correlation between the age of arrival in the U.S. and performance in the English proficiency tests. Participants who arrived at an earlier age performed better on the tests than those who arrived later. This finding supports the idea that language learning abilities decline after puberty. In fact, the study showed a clear decline in performance for those exposed to English after puberty, suggesting that language learning abilities are indeed more robust during childhood.

The study also provided evidence that this decline in language learning ability begins before puberty and continues gradually throughout adolescence. The results align with the critical period hypothesis, suggesting that the brain's capacity to learn a language diminishes over time, plateauing at a lower level after puberty. This plateau, however, varies from person to person, with some individuals maintaining higher proficiency levels than others even after the critical period has passed.

In terms of methodological rigor, the research conducted by Johnson and Newport offers strong evidence in support of the critical period hypothesis. The study's design—selecting participants with varied ages of exposure to English, using a standardized language proficiency test, and considering cognitive and social factors—ensures the reliability and validity of the findings. Additionally, the researchers accounted for important variables such as motivation, integration into English-speaking communities, and the time available for practicing the language.

In conclusion, the findings from Johnson and Newport’s study contribute significantly to our understanding of the critical period for second language acquisition. These results suggest that language learning abilities are influenced by biological and cognitive factors, but also by socio-cultural elements such as motivation and exposure to the language. The study affirms that critical periods in human development play a key role in language acquisition, and it highlights the importance of considering both age and contextual factors when designing language learning programs.

References

Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21(1), 60-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0

Bilingual Education at Institución Educativa Distrital La Libertad

 Institución Educativa Distrital (IED) La Libertad is located in the southwestern neighborhood of La Libertad in Barranquilla, Colombia. The school serves students from surrounding neighborhoods such as Me Quejo, Nueva Colombia, Carlos Meisel, La Manga, and Bajo Meisel—areas characterized by low socioeconomic status. These neighborhoods face numerous challenges, including environmental hazards like landslides and flooding, poor infrastructure, and a lack of basic services such as drinking water, sewage systems, electricity, and recreational spaces. Such conditions perpetuate cycles of poverty and social inequality, contributing to high levels of violence, disease, and pollution.

In this context, many students at IED La Libertad do not grow up in stable nuclear families. High rates of single motherhood and family fragmentation mean that children are often cared for by extended family members while their parents work long hours. This lack of parental presence and involvement, especially in educational matters, leads to feelings of isolation and can increase the vulnerability of young people to criminal activities and substance abuse. Furthermore, many students lack life goals or aspirations, as they often follow in the footsteps of their parents, who work in manual trades such as construction, domestic services, or cosmetology—jobs that typically do not require a higher level of education.

Additionally, there is a prevalent belief among many parents that learning English is unnecessary. This perspective stems from the perception that English has no real value in their children’s lives, as they do not envision a future for them beyond low-wage, manual labor. The lack of financial resources to pursue higher education further reinforces this view, undermining the importance of academic learning, including English.

To address these challenges, the school has undertaken the responsibility of fostering human development and improving the quality of life for its students through a bilingual education program.

1.1 Forces, Mechanisms, and Counterweights Defining the Bilingual Educational Framework

The successful implementation of a bilingual program at IED La Libertad can be understood through the analysis of factors outlined by Mehisto et al. (2015), which categorize the dynamics affecting bilingual education into forces, mechanisms, and counterweights.

Forces

Forces are the underlying ideas and influences that drive the development of the bilingual program and impact cultural, ethical, and social dynamics within the school. Some of the key forces include:

• The local government initiative, “I’m Bilingual”, which seeks to improve English proficiency across public schools in Barranquilla, from preschool to high school.
• The leadership of the school principal, who, as a bilingual teacher, has championed the integration of bilingual education at IED La Libertad, specifically through the Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) approach.
• The growing recognition of the positive impact bilingualism can have on students’ lives, providing them with opportunities to engage more fully in global contexts and improve their future prospects.

Mechanisms

Mechanisms refer to the tangible actions and strategies that enable the implementation of the bilingual program. These include:

• High school students’ participation in the “Sister Classroom” program, part of the “I’m Bilingual” initiative, which fosters collaborative learning in English through partnerships with schools in the United States and Canada.
• The “Unstoppable Children: Glocal Students” strategy, which focuses on teaching English to third- through fifth-grade students to enhance their communication skills.
• The “Unstoppable Kids: English Playground” initiative, targeting preschool through second-grade students, which introduces English through play-based learning.
• The development of a cohesive and consistent English curriculum at IED La Libertad, ensuring that the teaching methodology aligns with the goals of bilingual education.
• Support from the state through Barranquilla’s Secretary of Education, including funding for multilingual education initiatives.
• IED La Libertad’s role as a pilot school for the National Bilingualism Program (2018–2022), which guides bilingual education efforts across the country.

Counterweights

Counterweights are forces or mechanisms that can either hinder or counteract the positive effects of the bilingual program. These include:

• Lack of collaboration among teachers, which impedes the successful execution of the bilingual education plan.
• The absence of common planning time for teachers to discuss and assess the bilingual project’s progress.
• Resistance from some teachers to actively participate in the “I’m Bilingual” program, reflecting a lack of sense of ownership or commitment.
• The insufficient systematization of the results from bilingual activities, which hinders the ability to evaluate their impact effectively.
• Parents’ skepticism towards the ability of their children to learn English, often due to negative past experiences or a lack of understanding of the benefits of bilingual education.
• Widespread belief among parents that English education is irrelevant to their children’s futures, which is compounded by a lack of ambition and limited career expectations within the community.

1.2 Recommendations for Improvement

To address these challenges and improve the implementation of the bilingual program, several actions can be taken:

1. Engage Parents: Organize meetings to inform parents about the bilingual education program, focusing on the CLIL methodology and its benefits. These meetings should provide a platform for parents to express their concerns, ask questions, and offer suggestions. Increased parental involvement is crucial for the program's success, as it ensures that the learning environment at home supports the educational goals of the school.
2. Foster Collaboration Among Teachers: Create opportunities for teachers to collaborate and share best practices, ensuring that everyone is aligned in their approach to bilingual education. Regular working sessions will promote the exchange of ideas and the development of new pedagogical strategies that enhance the effectiveness of the program.
3. Systematize Data: Establish processes for recording and analyzing the results of bilingual activities. Systematizing data will allow the school to track the program’s progress more effectively and make adjustments as needed. This will also help demonstrate the program’s impact on student outcomes and foster greater accountability.

Bibliography

Mehisto, P., & Genesee, F. (2015). Building Bilingual Education Systems: Forces, Mechanisms and Counterweights. Cambridge University Press.

Ministerio de Educación Nacional. (2015, May 02). Programa Colombia Bilingüe 2014-2018 / Bilingualism in Colombia: “Colombia Bilingüe” Program 2014-2018. Retrieved from https://rutamaestra.santillana.com.co/programa-colombia-bilingue-2014-2018/

Usma Wilches, J. (2009). Education and Language Policy in Colombia: Exploring Processes of Inclusion, Exclusion, and Stratification in Times of Global Reform. Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios Educativos, 9(1), 123-145. Retrieved from http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1657-07902009000100009

Bilingual Education in Colombia: An Overview of English Learning Outcomes

Bilingualism programs in Colombia are designed with clear pedagogical goals, aiming to enhance the English language proficiency of students. The effectiveness of these programs is largely measured through the results of the Saber 11th test, a standardized national assessment administered by the Colombian Institute for the Evaluation of Education (ICFES). This test evaluates students' competencies across various subjects, including English, in the final year of upper-secondary education (11th grade). The results offer critical insight into the academic achievements of students and provide a measure of the nation's progress in bilingual education.

The Saber 11th test comprises multiple-choice questions and assesses a student's skills in critical reading, mathematics, social studies, citizenship, natural sciences, and English. Specifically, the English section of the test contains 45 questions distributed across seven parts, each focusing on different language skills:

1. Lexical knowledge: The student’s vocabulary and word usage.
2. Pragmatic knowledge: The ability to understand and use language in context.
3. Communicative knowledge: The capacity to use English for communication in real-world situations.
4. Grammatical knowledge: Understanding of English grammar structures.
5. Reading comprehension (literal level): The ability to understand basic, direct meanings in text.
6. Inferential reading process: The ability to draw conclusions and make inferences from text.
7. Grammatical and lexical knowledge: Combined assessment of vocabulary and grammar.

This test is aligned with the Basic Standards of Competence in Foreign Languages: English, as defined by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), which guides language learning, teaching, and assessment across Europe and globally.

English Learning Goals in Bilingual Programs

Over the years, various bilingual education programs in Colombia have set ambitious targets for English language proficiency among high school graduates. These programs aim to help students reach at least a B1 level of proficiency according to the CEFR, which is considered an intermediate level of communicative competence. Below are the goals of different bilingual initiatives:

• National Bilingualism Program (2004–2019): Targeted 100% of Colombian high school graduates achieving B1 proficiency by 2019.
• Project for Strengthening Foreign Language Competencies (2010–2014): Set a goal of 40% of high school graduates achieving B1 in 2014.
• National English Program: Colombia Very Well (2015–2025): Aimed for 50% of graduates to reach B1 proficiency by 2025.
• Colombia Bilingüe (2014–2018): Targeted only 8% of graduates to achieve B1 proficiency by 2018.

Despite these ambitious goals, none of the programs have fully reached their targets. For instance, in 2018, only 4.3% of students from public schools who took the Saber 11th test achieved the B1 level (Ministerio de Educación Nacional, 2019). This data highlights the ongoing challenges in meeting the bilingualism targets set by the government.

Challenges Contributing to Limited Success

Several factors may explain why these programs have not met their goals. A significant issue is the overlap and inconsistency of government policies across different presidential terms. Each new administration introduces a new development plan, often disregarding the strategies and initiatives of previous leaders. This lack of continuity has made it difficult for teachers to fully grasp and implement the language policies of each new program. Moreover, educators are frequently required to adjust their teaching methods as policies change, leading to confusion and inefficiency in the classroom. By the time teachers understand and start applying the previous guidelines, they are often replaced by new policies, resulting in a lack of sustained progress in English language teaching.

Characteristics of Bilingual Education in Colombia

In Colombia, English is considered a foreign language, primarily taught in classrooms rather than used in everyday communication. This means that students are exposed to English in controlled, academic settings, limiting their opportunities for practical use outside the classroom. Nonetheless, the Ministry of National Education believes that, with proper instruction, students can achieve high levels of proficiency, making them capable communicators when needed.

This model of bilingualism is often described as elective bilingualism, as students choose to enroll in language classes. Despite the dominance of Spanish in daily life, these educational programs allow students to acquire English, adding a second language to their skillset. The aim is that upon completing their schooling, students will have achieved at least a B1 level of proficiency, equipping them with the necessary language skills for both academic and professional contexts.

In summary, while Colombia has made strides in promoting bilingual education, challenges remain in achieving the desired outcomes. Variability in policy implementation, coupled with a lack of consistency in teacher training, has hindered the progress of students' English proficiency. However, the continued focus on bilingual education, coupled with targeted improvements in teaching and policy coherence, holds promise for future success in achieving higher levels of proficiency in English among Colombian students.

References

Ministerio de Educación Nacional. (2019). Contexto colombiano en el dominio del inglés. Retrieved from http://aprende.colombiaaprende.edu.co/es/colombiabilingue/86717

Bilingual Education in Colombia: An Evolution of Policies and Programs

 In the 1990s, Colombia experienced a significant transformation, not only in its legal framework but also in its societal expectations. The country was grappling with various forms of violence that had previously restricted freedoms, rights, and guarantees for many citizens. In response, the Colombian government called for a restructuring of the state and a new National Political Constitution, which came into effect on July 7, 1991. Article 67 of this constitution underscores education as both a right and a public service, highlighting its social function in granting access to knowledge, science, technology, and culture.

To further this vision, the General Education Law of 1994 was enacted, which organized the educational system into three levels: preschool, basic education (primary and secondary cycles), and upper-secondary education. Primary education, covering the first five grades, aimed to develop foundational communication skills in both the mother tongue and a foreign language. The law emphasized the importance of promoting reading and basic communication abilities, both orally and in writing, in Spanish and other languages, particularly in the case of ethnic groups with distinct linguistic traditions. Secondary education, encompassing grades six through nine, focused on enhancing students' understanding and expression of complex messages in both Spanish and foreign languages, alongside literary studies.

Upper-secondary education, which includes grades 10 and 11, laid the foundation for students' entry into higher education. Although it did not establish specific linguistic objectives, it underscored the importance of communication skills, both in Spanish and the mother tongue, as well as the promotion of reading habits.

Building on these frameworks, the Colombian Ministry of Education issued Resolution 2343 on June 5, 1996, which set out general curricular guidelines and established achievement indicators to guide educational processes. These indicators were designed to track student progress and assess their development in line with the expected learning outcomes.

For foreign language (FL) classes, particularly English as a Foreign Language (EFL), performance indicators were defined for various grade levels. For instance, in grades 1 to 3, students were expected to recognize linguistic representations of realities, incorporate new vocabulary into their lexicon, and communicate in simple expressions in a foreign language. By grades 4 to 6, students were expected to describe events, compare situations, and analyze short literary texts in English. By the time students reached grades 7 to 9, they were expected to make subjective descriptions and draw inferences from foreign language texts. Finally, in grades 10 and 11, students were expected to interpret and analyze information in foreign languages, particularly in the context of scientific and technological developments.

In 1999, the Ministry published the Curricular Guidelines for Foreign Languages, which aimed to equip language teachers with the tools needed to foster communicative competence in foreign languages. These guidelines provided a framework for continuous assessment and highlighted the importance of incorporating recent language acquisition theories into teaching practices. By focusing on a communicative approach, the guidelines sought to make foreign language instruction more relevant, effective, and meaningful for students.

These early efforts laid the groundwork for the establishment of the first National Bilingualism Program (2004–2019), which aimed to train citizens capable of communicating in English to engage in global communication processes. This program sought to enhance Colombia's participation in the global economy and cultural exchanges. To achieve this, the Ministry of Education introduced the Basic Standards of Competence in Foreign Languages: English in 2006, which set out clear expectations for students' language proficiency. The ultimate goal was for eleventh-grade students to achieve an intermediate level of English (B1 level according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, or CEFR).

As the National Bilingualism Program progressed, the Ministry of Education adopted the CEFR as a framework for language proficiency, aligning it with the Colombian educational system. This approach established common language levels across all educational stages, from elementary through upper-secondary education. For example, students in grades 1 to 3 were expected to reach an A1 (Beginner) level, while those in grades 4 to 7 were expected to achieve an A2 (Basic) level. By the time students reached grades 8 to 11, they were expected to attain a B1 (Pre-intermediate) level.

Despite the advances made under the original National Bilingualism Program, the Ministry introduced a new bilingualism initiative, the Project for Strengthening the Development of Competencies in Foreign Languages (2010–2014). This program aimed to enhance foreign language skills, particularly in English, among public sector educators and students. It aligned with the National Development Plan (2010–2014), which emphasized the role of foreign languages in fostering innovation and competitiveness.

The National English Program: Colombia Very Well (2015–2025) was introduced in 2014, with the ambitious goal of making Colombia the most educated country in Latin America and the best English-speaking nation in South America by 2025. This program focused on three key components: teacher training and the development of pedagogical materials, support for higher education in bilingual teacher training, and the integration of the private sector in providing English language opportunities for employees.

In 2016, the Colombia Bilingüe program was launched to improve students' English communication skills, providing access to international scholarships and better job opportunities. This initiative also involved the English Teaching Fellowship Program, where Colombian teachers worked alongside native English-speaking fellows to enhance classroom practices.

The National Bilingualism Program (2018–2022), the fifth iteration of these efforts, shifted focus to a broader vision of bilingualism, recognizing Colombia's diverse linguistic and cultural landscape. The program not only aimed to strengthen English learning but also promoted the development of other foreign languages, such as French and Portuguese, fostering functional multilingualism in the country.

Through these successive programs, Colombia has gradually transformed its approach to bilingual education, with an emphasis on communication skills, cultural exchange, and global integration. These initiatives demonstrate the country's commitment to improving the linguistic competencies of its citizens, ultimately preparing them for the demands of the global economy and society.

References

Ministerio de Educación Nacional (MEN). (2006). Estándares Básicos de Competencias en Lenguas Extranjeras: Inglés. Ministerio de Educación Nacional.

Ministerio de Educación Nacional (MEN). (2012). Proyecto para el fortalecimiento del desarrollo de competencias en lenguas extranjeras (2010–2014). Ministerio de Educación Nacional.

Ministerio de Educación Nacional (MEN). (2014). Programa Nacional de Inglés: Colombia Muy Bien (2015–2025). Ministerio de Educación Nacional.

Ministerio de Educación Nacional (MEN). (2016). Colombia Bilingüe (2016–2026). Ministerio de Educación Nacional.

Bilingual Education in Colombia: A Historical Overview and Policy Development

 This chapter explores the development of English language teaching and learning processes in Colombia, providing a comprehensive historical analysis from the 1970s to the present. The evolution of bilingual education in the country reflects both national policies and the shifting socio-political landscape, which have influenced the quality and accessibility of language education.

Early Educational Frameworks and the Influence of Religious Institutions

In 1886, Article 41 of the Colombian Political Constitution mandated that public education should be aligned with the Catholic religion. During this period, the Colombian state did not establish specific regulations for school systems, curricula, or educational standards. Most schools and universities were managed by religious organizations, which had extensive experience in providing educational services. This arrangement led to a lack of cohesion in the national educational system, as the curriculum and teaching standards varied greatly across regions.

In response to this fragmentation, the Ministry of National Education issued Decree 080 in 1974, aiming to standardize secondary education and improve its quality. This decree introduced a flexible curriculum that allowed schools to offer various training tracks, such as humanistic, scientific, or technical education, based on the needs of the country at that time.

Secondary education was divided into two cycles:

• The first cycle, lasting four years, provided students with a basic academic foundation, including vocational exploration in the first two years and vocational initiation in the final two years.
• The second cycle, lasting two years, offered specialized training in fields such as academic, pedagogical, industrial, commercial, or agricultural baccalaureates.

For the first time, foreign language education was regulated, with a mandate for three hours of language instruction per week. This was an important step toward formalizing language education across the country.

The 1979 Decree and the Role of Foreign Languages in Education

To further advance the quality of education, Decree 1337 of 1979 was introduced. This decree emphasized the role of foreign language learning in broadening students' cultural horizons. According to Article 1, students were required to study English for two years, French for two years, and an elective language for two years during secondary education. Most schools opted to teach English as a mandatory language during the vocational exploration cycle (the first two years), with French introduced in the vocational cycle (the last two years).

Curricular Reforms and the Communicative Language Teaching Approach

In 1982, the Ministry of National Education, in collaboration with the British Council and the Centro Cultural Colombo Americano, developed a new Curricular Program aimed at improving foreign language teaching in Colombia. This initiative sought to address the low levels of communicative competence among students and provided a framework for modernizing language teaching methodologies. The new curriculum was influenced by Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), a method that prioritizes real-world communication over traditional grammar-focused instruction.

Despite these efforts, the program faced significant challenges. Many teachers lacked the necessary proficiency in English and were unfamiliar with the pedagogical approaches promoted by the new curriculum. As a result, the desired outcomes were not fully realized.

The COFE Project and Teacher Training Initiatives

To address these issues, in 1991, Colombian universities, in collaboration with international organizations such as the Overseas Development Administration (ODA), the British Council, and the Ministry of National Education, launched the COFE Project (Colombian Framework for English). The project aimed to improve the quality of English teacher training in Colombian universities, particularly within Bachelor of Modern Languages programs.

However, the project faced numerous obstacles, including differences in university structures, limited financial resources, and a lack of familiarity with educational research among faculty members. These challenges led to the premature conclusion of the project in 1996. As noted by Usma Wilches (2009), the COFE Project had both positive and negative outcomes. While it fostered research initiatives and helped educators develop their own research groups, the lack of proper administrative leadership and institutional support hindered its long-term success (Usma & Frodden, 2003).

Constitutional and Legislative Changes: The 1991 Constitution and the General Education Law

Parallel to these educational reforms, the Colombian society experienced significant political changes. The country was undergoing a process of restructuring its legal system and responding to calls for greater freedoms and rights, which had been restricted due to years of violence. As a result, a Constituent Assembly was convened, and a new National Political Constitution was enacted on July 7, 1991. Article 67 of the Constitution established education as a fundamental right and public service, underscoring its social function and the importance of access to knowledge, science, technology, and cultural values.

In response to these constitutional reforms, the General Education Law was passed in 1994. This law reorganized the educational system into three levels: preschool, basic education (primary and secondary), and upper-secondary education. The law also set specific linguistic objectives for each level of education, including the development of communication skills in both Spanish and foreign languages.

Curricular Guidelines and Resolution 2343: Standardizing Foreign Language Education

As part of the General Education Law, the Ministry of National Education issued Resolution 2343 on June 5, 1996. This resolution established general guidelines for curricular processes and introduced achievement indicators to assess students' progress in foreign language learning. These indicators focused on assessing students' abilities to communicate in foreign languages, including tasks such as recognizing and using simple expressions, describing personal experiences, and comparing different cultural contexts.

In 1999, the Ministry of National Education published the Curricular Guidelines for Foreign Languages, which provided pedagogical guidance for language teachers. These guidelines emphasized the importance of developing communicative competence in foreign languages, supported by contemporary language acquisition theories. The guidelines encouraged teachers to engage in continuous evaluation and adapt their teaching methods to meet the needs of their students.

Conclusion

The development of bilingual education in Colombia has been marked by significant policy changes and educational reforms aimed at improving the quality of foreign language teaching. From the initial regulations introduced in the 1970s to the more recent curricular reforms, Colombia has made considerable efforts to integrate foreign language education into the national curriculum. However, challenges related to teacher proficiency, resource limitations, and institutional support have hindered the full realization of these reforms. Continued efforts are needed to ensure that language education in Colombia meets the needs of students and prepares them for the demands of a globalized world.

References

Usma, J. (2009). The COFE Project and its impact on language teacher education in Colombia. Journal of Language Education, 34(1), 45-67.

Usma, J., & Frodden, M. (2003). Teacher education and the role of research in the COFE Project. Language Teaching Journal, 25(4), 200-215.

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): An Overview

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is a widely recognized educational approach that combines language learning with content acquisition. As an acronym, CLIL succinctly encapsulates its dual purpose: teaching academic subjects through a foreign language while simultaneously developing language skills. Although the acronym itself seems simple, the application of CLIL spans a broad spectrum of educational settings, from bilingual education programs to English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI), Language Across the Curriculum (LAC), and Content-Based Instruction (CBI). This approach has evolved over time, drawing on historical examples such as the ancient Romans, who educated their children in Greek, and has gained popularity in contemporary education due to its flexibility and effectiveness (Ball, 2024).

Defining CLIL: Key Characteristics

Understanding CLIL requires delving into its multiple definitions, which highlight the approach's key features. These definitions offer insights into CLIL's aims, its dual focus, and its educational benefits.

1. CLIL as a Curriculum Member. The European Commission provides a straightforward definition of CLIL: "Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), in which pupils learn a subject through the medium of a foreign language" (European Commission, n.d.). This description emphasizes CLIL's place within the curriculum, noting that it involves teaching subject content in a foreign language. However, it leaves open questions regarding the extent to which pupils engage with both the subject matter and the language.
2. Dual Focus: Content and Language Learning. A more detailed definition, presented by David Marsh in 2002, emphasizes the dual objectives of CLIL: "CLIL refers to situations where subjects, or parts of subjects, are taught through a foreign language with dual-focused aims, namely the learning of content, and the simultaneous learning of a foreign language" (Marsh, 2002). This definition underscores the idea that CLIL enables students to master academic content while developing language proficiency. The dual-focus approach is central to CLIL's value, as it promotes efficiency by addressing both content and language learning simultaneously.
3. Maximizing Time and Efficiency. The European Commission further explains that CLIL offers "exposure to the language without requiring extra time in the curriculum" (European Commission, n.d.). This aspect of CLIL is particularly attractive in educational settings where time constraints are common. By integrating language learning into subject-based instruction, CLIL allows for additional language exposure without needing separate time slots for language lessons. This efficiency aligns with broader educational goals, such as the European Union's resolution to ensure that all citizens speak two foreign languages by the end of compulsory schooling (European Council, 1995).
4. CLIL Promotes Accessibility and Inclusion. David Graddol's 2006 definition highlights another important feature of CLIL: its inclusivity. He notes that CLIL differs from traditional English-medium education by not requiring students to have advanced language proficiency before engaging with subject content: "It differs from simple English-medium education in that the learner is not necessarily expected to have the English proficiency required to cope with the subject before beginning study" (Graddol, 2006). This inclusive aspect of CLIL makes it accessible to a wide range of learners, including those who may not have a high level of language proficiency at the outset. Teachers are encouraged to adapt their teaching methods to ensure that students comprehend the content, making CLIL an approach that works for diverse ability levels.
5. Motivation and Engagement. Finally, CLIL is recognized for its ability to motivate students. According to Marsh, Marsland, and Stenberg (2001), "CLIL is about using languages to learn... It is about installing a ‘hunger to learn’ in the student" (Marsh, Marsland, & Stenberg, 2001). By integrating language learning with subject content, CLIL fosters genuine engagement. Students are not merely learning a language for its own sake but are using it as a tool to understand complex academic topics. This contextualized approach increases the relevance of the language, making learning more meaningful and motivating. Furthermore, CLIL encourages students to use language for real-world purposes, which enhances their sense of achievement and competence.

Conclusion

CLIL is a versatile and effective educational approach that offers numerous benefits for language learners and content learners alike. By combining subject learning with language development, CLIL promotes efficiency, inclusivity, and motivation. As globalization and technological advancements continue to shape educational contexts, the relevance of CLIL as an integrated approach to teaching is likely to grow. CLIL’s dual focus, accessibility, and motivational potential make it a valuable tool for educators seeking to enhance both language proficiency and content knowledge.

References

Ball, P. (2024). What is CLIL? Onestopclil.

European Commission. (n.d.). Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). Retrieved from https://europa.eu.

European Council. (1995). Resolution on language learning and teaching in the European Community.

Graddol, D. (2006). English Next. British Council Publications.

Marsh, D. (2002). Content and Language Integrated Learning: The European Dimension – Actions, Trends, and Foresight Potential.

Marsh, D., Marsland, B., & Stenberg, K. (2001). CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning. European Commission.

Effective Feedback

 Feedback is a critical component of the learning process. However, its success depends largely on how students engage with it to enhance their learning. While feedback in education seems simple—where a teacher reviews a student's work, provides comments or grades, and the student reviews them—it is much more complex than it appears. Despite its widespread use, studies show that feedback can sometimes hinder rather than help learning (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). The key to effective feedback lies not in the teacher’s comments, but in how students respond to and use those comments to improve.

The Purpose of Feedback

In educational contexts, feedback is typically defined as the information provided by an external source regarding an individual’s performance. This feedback can be as simple as stating whether a student's work meets a set standard or as complex as offering detailed strategies for improvement. For example, feedback in a typing class might inform a student that their typing speed is 45 words per minute, and more helpful feedback could include a goal of 50 words per minute along with a suggestion to use only their thumbs to press the space bar.

In fields like sports or arts, feedback is generally more straightforward—coaches and teachers give advice that directly informs how a student can improve a skill. However, in many educational settings, the real challenge with feedback arises when it focuses solely on improving the existing work instead of supporting future performance. A math teacher, for instance, might correct errors on a student’s homework, but the student learns little because they simply note the errors without understanding how to avoid them in the future.

The true purpose of feedback should often focus not just on fixing the current work, but on fostering the student’s ability to perform better next time. When feedback merely corrects errors without offering strategies for improvement, it fails to engage the student in the learning process. If feedback doesn’t help the student change or improve in some way, then it is unlikely to contribute meaningfully to their learning.

Feedback That Students Can Use

Effective feedback should start from the student’s current understanding and abilities, rather than where the teacher wants the student to be. This is aligned with David Ausubel’s (1968) observation that the most important factor in learning is what the learner already knows. Understanding the student’s starting point allows the teacher to tailor feedback that is constructive and enables improvement. For example, asking a student to revise an essay without guiding them to improve specific areas will not likely result in much learning. By focusing on where the student is and how to help them progress, feedback becomes a tool for growth.

Designing Tasks to Reveal Students' Thinking

One of the most effective ways to give useful feedback is to design tasks that provide insights into the student’s thinking process. This allows teachers to identify areas where students need improvement and provide feedback that can help them develop. In subjects like language arts or social studies, tasks are often open-ended, which makes it easier to learn about a student's thought process. For instance, a history question like "Why did the Union army want to capture Atlanta?" can reveal how deeply a student understands historical concepts like logistics. In contrast, subjects like math and science sometimes require more carefully designed tasks to reveal a student’s understanding. Asking students to consider not just the answer, but also their reasoning, helps identify gaps in knowledge and areas for growth.

Making Feedback Interactive

To ensure that students actively engage with feedback, it can be useful to transform the process into a collaborative and analytical task. Teachers can encourage students to "work backward" from the feedback, such as by identifying which specific comments apply to their work or determining which problems in an assignment need correction. This approach encourages students to carefully examine their feedback, think critically about their work, and make the changes needed to improve. For example, a teacher might tell a student that five equations are incorrect and challenge them to find and fix the errors, instead of simply providing the corrected answers.

Such methods turn feedback into an interactive process where students are actively involved in identifying what needs to be improved and why. This collaborative approach encourages self-reflection and deeper learning, rather than simply making corrections.

Building Self-Assessment Skills

Ultimately, the goal of feedback should be to help students develop the ability to assess their own work. The more a student can critique their own performance, the less dependent they become on external feedback. For example, in music education, teachers often work with students to help them develop self-assessment skills, knowing that most progress happens outside the classroom through independent practice. By developing a student's ability to self-assess, teachers can ensure that students continue to improve even when they are not directly guided by the teacher.

An effective way to develop these skills is to ask students to reflect on what went well, what was challenging, and what they found interesting about their work. By identifying areas of strength and areas for improvement, students can gain clarity on how to improve in the future. Over time, this process fosters independent learning and critical thinking skills.

Conclusion

Effective feedback is not just about correcting mistakes or providing grades; it is about engaging students in the learning process and helping them use feedback to make improvements. By designing tasks that reveal a student’s thinking, making feedback interactive, and building students' capacity for self-assessment, teachers can foster a learning environment where feedback becomes a tool for ongoing improvement. Ultimately, the best feedback is the kind that empowers students to take ownership of their learning and continue growing long after the feedback is given.

References

Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284.

Wiliam, D. (2012). Embedded formative assessment. Solution Tree Press.

Understanding Cummins' Quadrants: A Framework for Effective Learning and Task Design

 Cummins' Quadrants of Learning provide a framework for understanding how different tasks vary in terms of cognitive demand and contextual relevance. This model divides learning into four quadrants, with a vertical axis representing the cognitive difficulty of tasks, and a horizontal axis indicating the level of contextual support or abstraction. The intersection of these two axes helps categorize tasks into four types: from simple and context-rich to complex and abstract. Understanding how to effectively navigate these quadrants is crucial for educators, particularly when working with students at various stages of language development.

The Four Quadrants of Learning

The vertical axis of Cummins' model ranges from cognitively undemanding tasks, which learners find easy, to cognitively demanding tasks, which are more challenging. On the horizontal axis, the scale ranges from high context tasks, where learners have access to familiar material and supportive cues, to context-reduced tasks, which present abstract concepts that are harder to relate to real-world experiences.

These quadrants are labeled as follows:

• Quadrant A: Cognitively undemanding and context-rich tasks.
• Quadrant B: Cognitively undemanding but context-reduced tasks.
• Quadrant C: Cognitively demanding but context-rich tasks.
• Quadrant D: Cognitively demanding and context-reduced tasks.

Situating Learning Within the Quadrants

According to Cummins, effective teaching should begin in Quadrant A, where tasks are familiar and easy to understand. These tasks serve as an accessible entry point for students, especially for those who are learning a new language. By starting with low-difficulty, high-context tasks, teachers can help students build confidence and prepare them for more complex challenges. Once students are comfortable with the material, the next step is to move to Quadrant B, where the cognitive demand remains low, but the task becomes more abstract. This transition helps maintain engagement while continuing to promote learning.

As students gain proficiency, they can gradually move to Quadrant C, which involves more complex tasks that require higher levels of cognitive effort. These tasks might be difficult for students to relate to their own experiences, but they are crucial for advancing academic skills and knowledge. Finally, tasks in Quadrant D, which are both cognitively demanding and context-reduced, should be avoided unless students have the necessary background and support to handle them effectively.

Task Difficulty and Its Implications

Cummins' model also emphasizes the distinction between context-embedded and context-reduced tasks. Context-embedded tasks are those that provide learners with additional cues, such as visuals, gestures, or the ability to ask questions. For example, a task in which students can look at pictures while learning new vocabulary is context-embedded. These tasks are generally easier for learners because they offer support through multiple sensory channels.

In contrast, context-reduced tasks are more challenging because they provide minimal support. These tasks might involve listening to a lecture or reading a dense academic text, where the language itself is the primary source of information. Tasks in Quadrant D, which are both cognitively demanding and context-reduced, represent the most challenging learning experiences, particularly for students who are not yet fluent in a language. However, Cummins stresses that it is important for all learners, especially English as a Second Language (ESL) students, to eventually be able to handle such tasks in order to succeed academically.

The Learning Process Across the Quadrants

As learners progress through their education, they move from one quadrant to another, building on previous knowledge and increasing their cognitive abilities. Quadrant A is the starting point, where new concepts are introduced and basic understanding is established. For instance, in a mathematics class, students might begin by learning to count coins. This foundational knowledge is essential because it provides the base upon which more complex skills can be developed.

After mastering the basics in Quadrant A, students move to Quadrant B, where they apply their knowledge in real-world, predictable situations. In the coin example, this might involve going to a store and using the coins to make a purchase. This transition signifies the application of knowledge outside the classroom, demonstrating that the student can transfer what they've learned to practical scenarios.

Quadrant C represents the assimilation of knowledge, where students connect what they’ve learned to other areas of study. For instance, understanding how coins relate to the broader concept of economics, including topics like supply and demand, would be an example of Quadrant C learning. This stage requires higher-level thinking and the ability to make connections across disciplines.

Finally, Quadrant D involves adaptation, where learners apply their knowledge in unpredictable, real-world situations that involve multiple disciplines. For example, a teacher might ask students to devise a strategy for increasing funds for their school, using their understanding of U.S. currency and current economic issues. This task is complex and requires not only cognitive flexibility but also the ability to think critically and adapt knowledge to novel situations.

Conclusion

Cummins' Quadrants provide a useful framework for educators to assess the cognitive and contextual demands of different learning tasks. By carefully planning activities that move students through the quadrants, teachers can create a learning progression that builds both knowledge and skills in a way that is engaging and appropriate for each stage of development. Avoiding tasks that are irrelevant or too abstract for students at lower levels ensures that learning remains accessible and meaningful. Understanding the balance between cognitive demand and contextual support is key to fostering successful learning experiences, especially for language learners.

References

Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Multilingual Matters.

Modos de Conducir el Aula

 A01: Conflictos en la Enseñanza de Lenguas Extranjeras: Un Análisis de Dimensiones Pedagógicas y Socioculturales

En el ámbito de la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras, las interacciones en el aula pueden generar una serie de conflictos derivados de la discrepancia entre las expectativas del docente y las realidades culturales, sociales y cognitivas de los estudiantes. Para comprender mejor estos conflictos, resulta útil analizar cuatro situaciones hipotéticas en el contexto de un aula de español, basándonos en las dimensiones identificadas por Prabhu (1992). A continuación, se expondrán los posibles conflictos para cada situación, señalando las dimensiones más susceptibles de entrar en conflicto y justificando las selecciones realizadas.

En el primer caso, un profesor que imparte clases de español en China busca aplicar un enfoque basado en la negociación de contenidos y procedimientos en el aula. El principal conflicto aquí se relaciona con la discrepancia entre la clase como instancia de un método de enseñanza y la clase como espacio de interacción humana. Como señala Prabhu (1992), la gestión del aula implica un manejo cuidadoso de las interacciones entre los estudiantes y el profesor, buscando siempre preservar la imagen de autoridad del docente. El choque cultural entre las expectativas del profesor y los estudiantes chinos podría generar tensiones. Según González Ruiz et al. (1994), el enfoque comunicativo puede no ser bien recibido en contextos donde predomina una visión educativa más autoritaria. Este desencuentro puede ser mitigado si el profesor adapta sus métodos a las necesidades socioculturales de los estudiantes, reconociendo que la negociación de contenidos no siempre es compatible con las expectativas tradicionales de enseñanza en algunas culturas.

En el segundo escenario, los estudiantes que llegan tarde y entran al aula sin disculparse ni saludar, generan un conflicto en relación con la clase como un acontecimiento social y la clase como interacción humana. Como indica Prabhu (1992), la clase es un evento social rutinario con normas de comportamiento esperadas, como saludar o disculparse al llegar tarde. El comportamiento de los estudiantes podría interpretarse como una falta de respeto, afectando la dinámica de interacción en el aula. Este conflicto resalta la necesidad de que los docentes establezcan un marco de referencia que permita interpretar y responder adecuadamente a estos comportamientos, tal como lo sugiere Prabhu (1992). Si los estudiantes no comprenden la importancia de estas normas, el ambiente en el aula podría volverse tenso, lo que afectaría la calidad de la enseñanza y aprendizaje.

En el tercer caso, una alumna insiste en que se le corrijan todos los errores porque considera que esta es la única manera de aprender, mientras que el profesor ha decidido no corregir los errores en actividades con un objetivo comunicativo. El conflicto principal aquí se da entre la clase como instancia de un método de enseñanza y la clase como interacción humana. La estudiante no comprende el enfoque comunicativo del profesor, que busca fomentar la fluidez en la comunicación en lugar de centrarse en la corrección de errores. Según Ferrer Mora (2014), la corrección constante de errores puede generar ansiedad en los estudiantes y afectar su motivación. El profesor, al no reconocer las necesidades particulares de la estudiante, podría crear una atmósfera de frustración, ya que la alumna no logra entender que el proceso de aprendizaje implica cometer errores y aprender de ellos. Esta discrepancia puede afectar la dinámica de interacción entre los estudiantes y el profesor, y generar rivalidades o frustraciones dentro del grupo.

Por último, en el caso de un estudiante que pide al profesor que vuelva a explicar un concepto ya tratado, el conflicto surge entre la clase como unidad de la secuencia curricular y la clase como interacción humana. El profesor, al no considerar las necesidades de los estudiantes que no han comprendido completamente el contenido, puede generar tensiones. Como señala Prabhu (1992), el aula es un espacio de interacción social donde las expectativas compartidas son esenciales para el aprendizaje. El estudiante, al solicitar la aclaración, está tratando de asegurar que ha comprendido bien el contenido, lo cual es legítimo dentro de una interacción humana en el aula. Sin embargo, el profesor debe equilibrar sus responsabilidades pedagógicas, respetando tanto los objetivos curriculares como las necesidades individuales de los estudiantes, para mantener un ambiente de aprendizaje armonioso.

En conclusión, estos ejemplos ilustran cómo diferentes dimensiones del aula de clases pueden entrar en conflicto debido a la discrepancia entre los métodos de enseñanza y las expectativas sociales o culturales de los estudiantes. Como Prabhu (1992) argumenta, la enseñanza de una lengua extranjera no solo implica el uso de métodos pedagógicos, sino también la gestión de las interacciones humanas y la creación de un ambiente que favorezca el aprendizaje. Por lo tanto, los docentes deben estar atentos a las diferencias culturales, las necesidades individuales de los estudiantes y las expectativas de ambos actores para lograr una enseñanza eficaz y un ambiente de aprendizaje positivo.

Referencias

Ferrer Mora, Hang. (2014). La corrección de errores como proceso interactivo. Recuperado de http://books.google.com.co/books?id=7V5IBvCKCOsC

González Ruiz, R., et al. (1994). Grupos heterogéneos: Un proyecto viable de enseñanza de español a extranjeros. Recuperado de http://cvc.cervantes.es/Ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/04/04_0205.pdf

Prabhu, N. S. (1992). Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford University Press.

 

A02: El uso de la lengua materna en el aprendizaje de una segunda lengua: Un enfoque equilibrado en actividades de vacío de información y resolución de problemas

La enseñanza de una segunda lengua (L2) implica una serie de desafíos y decisiones pedagógicas que afectan la efectividad del aprendizaje. Entre los enfoques más comunes se encuentran las actividades de vacío de información y la resolución de problemas, las cuales se consideran herramientas valiosas para el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa. No obstante, estas actividades no están exentas de dificultades, especialmente cuando los estudiantes recurren a su lengua materna (L1) durante las interacciones en L2. Esta práctica ha generado un debate acerca de la eficiencia de tales enfoques y si el uso de la L1 en el aula es realmente beneficioso o contraproducente.

De acuerdo con el Centro Virtual Cervantes (2014), la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras se refiere a actividades didácticas diseñadas para la adquisición de una lengua no materna, cuyo objetivo es facilitar la competencia comunicativa del estudiante. A través de actividades como las de vacío de información o resolución de problemas, se busca que los estudiantes no solo comprendan los aspectos estructurales de la lengua, sino también los funcionales, generando un ambiente de interacción cooperativa en clase que favorezca el aprendizaje social (Hockly & Puello, 2014). Sin embargo, la realidad de las aulas muestra que los estudiantes, particularmente en niveles iniciales o intermedios, a menudo se ven en la necesidad de utilizar su lengua materna para superar dificultades de comprensión o para expresar ideas con precisión.

En este sentido, el uso de la L1 durante las actividades de L2 no necesariamente debe verse como un obstáculo, sino como una estrategia que favorece la comprensión. En muchas ocasiones, los estudiantes emplean su lengua materna para aclarar conceptos gramaticales complejos, como las conjugaciones verbales o el uso adecuado de estructuras específicas (por ejemplo, la diferencia entre "like" y "love" seguidos del infinitivo o el gerundio). Este uso ocasional de la L1, lejos de obstaculizar el proceso de aprendizaje, puede ayudar a los estudiantes a fortalecer la comprensión de las estructuras de la L2 y, por lo tanto, contribuir a su adquisición (Ferrer Mora, 2014).

Asimismo, cuando los estudiantes participan en actividades como discusiones sobre hábitos alimenticios o la preparación de recetas, la interacción en L2 se ve enriquecida por el uso de la L1, que facilita la construcción del significado entre los participantes. Aunque esto puede generar interferencia, como el caso de la traducción literal de expresiones entre lenguas (por ejemplo, "I want some bread" frente a "quiero dos panes"), estas situaciones proporcionan una oportunidad para que los estudiantes reflexionen sobre las diferencias y similitudes entre ambas lenguas, lo cual es parte del proceso de aprendizaje (Varón López, 2014).

La interferencia de la L1, sin embargo, debe ser gestionada con cuidado. Según González Ruiz et al. (1994), los docentes deben fomentar un entorno en el que el uso de la L1 no se convierta en una dependencia, sino que sea una herramienta ocasional que sirva para facilitar la comprensión. Los estudiantes deben ser alentados a utilizar la L2 tanto como sea posible, pero también deben entender que los errores son parte natural del proceso de adquisición. La corrección mutua y la reflexión sobre los errores son fundamentales para desarrollar la autonomía en el aprendizaje de la lengua.

En conclusión, aunque las actividades de vacío de información y de resolución de problemas tienen el potencial de mejorar la competencia comunicativa de los estudiantes, el uso de la L1 durante estas actividades no debe considerarse un obstáculo. Al contrario, cuando se utiliza de manera controlada, la L1 puede contribuir significativamente al proceso de aprendizaje de la L2, ayudando a los estudiantes a superar dificultades momentáneas y a fortalecer su comprensión. La clave está en encontrar un balance adecuado, donde la L2 sea utilizada en su mayor medida posible, pero reconociendo que la L1 también tiene un papel valioso en la facilitación del aprendizaje.

Referencias:

Centro Virtual Cervantes. (2014). Diccionario de términos claves de ELE: Enseñanza de segundas lenguas. Recuperado de http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/diccio_ele/diccionario/ensenanzasegleng.htm

Ferrer Mora, H. (2014). La corrección de errores como proceso interactivo. Recuperado de http://books.google.com.co/books?id=7V5IBvCKCOsC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=error+en+adquisici%C3%B3n+de+segundas+lenguas&source=bl&ots=uzL-ojTLSv&sig=-wHKDfqBadtp3tbx9M6fd37NlOs&hl=es-419&sa=X&ei=BMcxVOucFITMggTn34DABQ&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=error%20en%20adquisici%C3%B3n%20de%20segundas%20lenguas&f=false

González Ruiz, R., et al. (1994). Grupos heterogéneos: Un proyecto viable de enseñanza de español a extranjeros. Recuperado de http://cvc.cervantes.es/Ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/04/04_0205.pdf

Hockly, N., & Puello, S. (2014). Actuar de manera significativa en el aula de segundas lenguas.

Varón López, A. (2014). Fosilización y adquisición de segundas lenguas (ASL). Recuperado de http://human.kanagawa-u.ac.jp/gakkai/publ/pdf/no166/16609.pdf

 

A03: La corrección de errores en la producción oral en la enseñanza de segundas lenguas: Estrategias y enfoques pedagógicos

La corrección y evaluación de la producción oral de los estudiantes en la enseñanza de segundas lenguas es un aspecto clave en el proceso de aprendizaje. La forma en que los docentes abordan este proceso tiene un impacto significativo en la motivación y el desarrollo de las competencias lingüísticas de los estudiantes. A continuación, se presenta un análisis detallado sobre las diversas prácticas relacionadas con la corrección de errores, basándose en experiencias y enfoques pedagógicos relevantes.

En primer lugar, es fundamental que la corrección en las actividades dependa tanto de la articulación de los sonidos como de la organización de los enunciados. Esto implica que no solo se debe prestar atención a los aspectos fonéticos, sino también a la coherencia y cohesión del discurso (González Ruiz et al., 1994). Es decir, el docente debe evaluar la forma en que los estudiantes comunican sus ideas y cómo estas se estructuran dentro de un contexto lingüístico adecuado. De acuerdo con Nickel (1972), los errores son oportunidades para que los estudiantes reafirmen su aprendizaje mediante un proceso de ensayo y error, lo cual favorece el progreso a través de la retroalimentación.

En cuanto al tipo de errores que deben corregirse, es necesario distinguir entre errores fonéticos y pragmáticos. El primero se refiere a la pronunciación y la correcta articulación de los sonidos, mientras que los errores pragmáticos implican el uso adecuado de la lengua en contextos específicos, como la forma en que los hablantes organizan su discurso para adaptarse a diferentes situaciones comunicativas (Centro Virtual Cervantes, 2014). Estos aspectos deben ser corregidos según la naturaleza del error y el contexto comunicativo. Si un estudiante comete un error estructural que impide la comprensión del mensaje, la corrección debe ser inmediata y directa, pero si se trata de una interacción comunicativa más compleja, la corrección debe realizarse al final para no interrumpir la fluidez y la confianza del estudiante.

Un aspecto crucial en el proceso de corrección es la actitud del docente frente al error. Es fundamental que los errores no se perciban como un obstáculo, sino como una parte natural del aprendizaje. Como afirma Ferrer Mora (2014), los errores deben ser entendidos como una herramienta para identificar áreas de mejora y para que los estudiantes desarrollen estrategias para auto-corrigirse. Por tanto, el docente debe ofrecer una corrección amable y constructiva que favorezca la autoestima y la seguridad del estudiante. Esta perspectiva es consistente con la idea de que el error es una forma de aprendizaje activo, donde los estudiantes no solo aprenden de sus fallos, sino que también se sensibilizan sobre cómo mejorar su rendimiento (Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, 2014).

En resumen, la corrección de la producción oral en la enseñanza de segundas lenguas debe ser un proceso flexible y adaptado a las necesidades del estudiante y al contexto de comunicación. La corrección debe equilibrar los aspectos fonéticos y pragmáticos del lenguaje, mientras que se fomente una actitud positiva hacia el error. Los docentes deben implementar estrategias que permitan a los estudiantes identificar y corregir sus propios errores, promoviendo la auto-reflexión y el aprendizaje autónomo. Al hacerlo, se facilita la construcción de un ambiente de aprendizaje inclusivo y motivador, clave para el éxito en el dominio de una lengua extranjera.

Referencias

Centro Virtual Cervantes. (2014). Diccionario de términos claves de ELE. Enseñanza de segundas lenguas. Recuperado de http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/diccio_ele/diccionario/ensenanzasegleng.htm

Ferrer Mora, H. (2014). La corrección de errores como proceso interactivo. Recuperado de http://books.google.com.co/books?id=7V5IBvCKCOsC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=error+en+adquisici%C3%B3n+de+segundas+lenguas&source=bl&ots=uzL-ojTLSv&sig=-wHKDfqBadtp3tbx9M6fd37NlOs&hl=es-419&sa=X&ei=BMcxVOucFITMggTn34DABQ&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=error%20en%20adquisici%C3%B3n%20de%20segundas%20lenguas&f=false

González Ruiz, R., et al. (1994). Grupos heterogéneos: Un proyecto viable de enseñanza de español a extranjeros. Recuperado de http://cvc.cervantes.es/Ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/04/04_0205.pdf

Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte. (2014). Módulo 6: Aulas y prácticas educativas. Metodología del aula. Recuperado de http://www.ite.educacion.es/formacion/materiales/126/cd/unidad_6/mo6_metodologia_del_aula.htm

Nickel, J. (1972). El error como orientación en el aprendizaje de segundas lenguas.

 

A04: Reflexiones sobre Estrategias para Promover la Autonomización del Aprendizaje en el Aula de Lengua

La autonomización del aprendizaje en la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras es un proceso esencial para fomentar la independencia y el desarrollo de habilidades autónomas en los estudiantes. Diversas estrategias pedagógicas se utilizan para promover esta autonomía dentro del aula. A continuación, se analiza la efectividad de varias de estas prácticas, evaluando sus ventajas e inconvenientes, y se proponen otras alternativas que podrían potenciar este proceso.

1. Lecturas seleccionadas por los estudiantes. Las actividades de lectura, donde los estudiantes escogen textos de la biblioteca según sus intereses y necesidades, son altamente beneficiosas para fomentar la motivación intrínseca y la autonomía. La posibilidad de seleccionar los textos les permite alinear el aprendizaje con sus intereses personales, lo que aumenta su compromiso con la tarea. Además, el hecho de tener que discutir el contenido con sus compañeros fomenta el uso activo de la lengua extranjera (L2), promoviendo el aprendizaje colaborativo y el desarrollo de estrategias cognitivas como la anticipación y la corrección de hipótesis. Sin embargo, la principal dificultad de este enfoque radica en la evaluación de la comprensión, ya que no todos los estudiantes leen los mismos textos, lo que hace difícil valorar de manera uniforme su comprensión y los procesos de construcción de sentido (Ur, 1996). En este sentido, el docente podría integrar estrategias como debates o presentaciones para asegurar la evaluación comprensiva de todos los estudiantes.
2. Respuestas a ejercicios de comprensión oral. Aunque los ejercicios de comprensión auditiva son útiles para medir el nivel de comprensión, no necesariamente fomentan la autonomía de los estudiantes. Este tipo de actividades, donde el profesor presenta un texto y los alumnos deben anotar lo que comprenden, se centra más en la ejecución de tareas determinadas por el docente, sin darles a los estudiantes la oportunidad de tomar decisiones sobre su propio aprendizaje. De acuerdo con diversos estudios, las actividades que no implican un control sobre el proceso de aprendizaje por parte del estudiante pueden ser limitantes para el desarrollo de la autonomía (González Ruiz, et al., 1994). En este caso, sería recomendable incluir ejercicios que permitan a los estudiantes elegir temas o formatos, promoviendo una mayor implicación personal en el proceso.
3. Autoevaluación al finalizar una unidad. La autoevaluación es una herramienta poderosa para estimular la reflexión sobre el propio aprendizaje. Al permitir que los estudiantes se evalúen a sí mismos, pueden tomar conciencia de sus logros y dificultades, lo que fomenta la autorregulación y la autonomía en el aprendizaje. Esta práctica no solo refuerza la motivación intrínseca, sino que también promueve un enfoque formativo del aprendizaje, donde los estudiantes se responsabilizan de su proceso educativo (Giovannini et al., 1996). Sin embargo, el éxito de esta estrategia depende de la claridad de los objetivos de aprendizaje y de la capacidad del estudiante para evaluar sus propios avances de manera realista y crítica.
4. Respuestas a preguntas del libro de texto. Este enfoque, en el que los estudiantes responden preguntas de manera individual, es una estrategia comúnmente utilizada en las clases de lengua, pero su efectividad para promover la autonomía es limitada. Aunque los estudiantes desarrollan su capacidad para responder preguntas, el hecho de que las respuestas estén predeterminadas por el libro de texto significa que los estudiantes no tienen un control total sobre su aprendizaje. Además, este tipo de ejercicios no fomenta la reflexión profunda sobre el contenido ni el uso de estrategias autónomas para adquirir nuevos conocimientos (Ur, 1996). Sería más beneficioso si estas preguntas se acompañaran de actividades que requieran que los estudiantes produzcan su propio contenido, promoviendo un aprendizaje más autónomo y personalizado.
5. Reflexión sobre la memorización del vocabulario. La reflexión sobre estrategias para memorizar vocabulario permite que los estudiantes tomen un rol activo en su aprendizaje. Este tipo de actividad no solo involucra la memorización, sino también el análisis de los métodos que mejor funcionan para cada estudiante, lo que fomenta la autonomía al darles la oportunidad de desarrollar sus propios enfoques de aprendizaje. Además, esta práctica reconoce la diversidad de estilos de aprendizaje y permite que los estudiantes experimenten con diferentes técnicas, como la repetición espaciada o el uso de tarjetas didácticas, para mejorar la retención de vocabulario (Giovannini et al., 1996). Este tipo de actividad tiene un gran potencial para fortalecer la autonomía, ya que permite a los estudiantes tomar decisiones sobre cómo aprender de manera más eficiente.
6. Reflexión colectiva sobre los objetivos de la actividad. La reflexión colectiva sobre los objetivos de la actividad es una estrategia que promueve la autonomía al hacer que los estudiantes reflexionen sobre su propio proceso de aprendizaje y los objetivos alcanzados. Esta práctica favorece la metacognición, ya que los estudiantes deben identificar las estrategias que utilizaron y evaluar su efectividad. Al fomentar la reflexión sobre el proceso, los estudiantes no solo mejoran su capacidad para aprender de manera independiente, sino que también desarrollan habilidades críticas para su desarrollo académico (Centro Virtual Cervantes, 2014). Sin embargo, la eficacia de esta estrategia depende del tiempo que se dedique a la reflexión y de la orientación que el profesor pueda ofrecer para guiar el proceso reflexivo de los estudiantes.

Otras estrategias para fomentar la autonomía. Además de las estrategias mencionadas, existen otras formas de promover la autonomía en el aula. Por ejemplo, el uso de proyectos de largo plazo donde los estudiantes son responsables de la planificación, ejecución y evaluación de su trabajo les permite desarrollar habilidades de gestión del tiempo y toma de decisiones. Otra estrategia útil es la creación de un ambiente de aprendizaje en el que los estudiantes tengan acceso a recursos y materiales adicionales, como plataformas en línea o bibliotecas, que les permitan aprender a su propio ritmo y según sus intereses.

En conclusión, la autonomía en el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras puede ser promovida mediante diversas estrategias, cada una con sus ventajas e inconvenientes. La clave está en proporcionar a los estudiantes oportunidades para tomar decisiones sobre su aprendizaje, reflexionar sobre sus procesos y reconocer la importancia de su responsabilidad en el proceso educativo. Estas prácticas, cuando se implementan de manera efectiva, no solo fomentan la autonomía, sino que también contribuyen al desarrollo de habilidades críticas y metacognitivas esenciales para el aprendizaje a lo largo de la vida.

Referencias

Giovannini, M., et al. (1996). El aprendizaje autónomo: Estilos de aprendizaje y estrategias didácticas. Editorial Graó.

González Ruiz, R., et al. (1994). Grupos heterogéneos: Un proyecto viable de enseñanza de español a extranjeros. Centro Virtual Cervantes.

Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge University Press.

Centro Virtual Cervantes. (2014). Diccionario de términos claves de ELE. Recuperado de http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/diccio_ele/diccionario/ensenanzasegleng.htm

 

A05: La Enseñanza en Grupos Heterogéneos: Beneficios y Retos en el Aprendizaje de una Lengua Extranjera

La organización de grupos heterogéneos en el aula, en la que se mezclan estudiantes con diferentes niveles de habilidades y conocimientos, es una estrategia educativa que ha sido ampliamente debatida en el campo de la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras. En su obra, P. Ur defiende la idea de que esta modalidad de agrupamiento puede favorecer el aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera (L2) al generar entornos colaborativos donde los estudiantes tienen la oportunidad de aprender unos de otros, compartiendo sus experiencias y perspectivas diversas. Este enfoque, al ser inclusivo, permite que cada estudiante aporte su visión del mundo, lo que enriquece la interacción y el aprendizaje (González Ruiz et al., 1994).

Según el Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte de España, los grupos heterogéneos no solo se caracterizan por reunir a estudiantes con distintos niveles de competencia, sino que también promueven la colaboración entre individuos con capacidades diversas, lo que fomenta el trabajo en equipo y el desarrollo de habilidades sociales (Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, 2014). Estos grupos, al compartir tareas y responsabilidades, permiten que los estudiantes aprendan a organizarse y a manejarse en situaciones donde deben negociar y colaborar para alcanzar un objetivo común.

La diversidad lingüística y cultural es otro de los aspectos positivos de los grupos heterogéneos en el aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera. Como destacan González Ruiz et al. (1994), los estudiantes, al interactuar con compañeros de diferentes contextos culturales, no solo se ven motivados para compartir sus propias experiencias y visiones del mundo, sino que también se enfrentan a nuevas perspectivas que enriquecen su comprensión intercultural. Esta confrontación de culturas, además, fomenta el desarrollo de la competencia pluricultural, que es esencial para la participación efectiva en contextos interculturales (Centro Virtual Cervantes, 2014). De este modo, el aprendizaje de una L2 se enriquece no solo desde el punto de vista lingüístico, sino también desde el aspecto sociocultural, favoreciendo una competencia comunicativa más completa.

Sin embargo, dirigir un aula heterogénea presenta retos significativos para el docente. Crear un ambiente de aprendizaje inclusivo que favorezca tanto el desarrollo del pensamiento crítico como del pensamiento creativo requiere un alto grado de preparación y adaptabilidad. El profesor debe ser capaz de diseñar actividades que respondan a las diferentes necesidades y estilos de aprendizaje de los estudiantes, promoviendo la interacción y el intercambio de ideas (Ferrer Mora, 2014). Este desafío implica, además, un compromiso constante con la innovación pedagógica, ya que es necesario adaptar los materiales y las estrategias a las realidades sociales y culturales del grupo.

En cuanto a mi experiencia personal, como estudiante, he podido constatar los beneficios de participar en ambientes de aprendizaje heterogéneos. Durante mi formación, las actividades en grupos mixtos me permitieron no solo mejorar mis habilidades lingüísticas, sino también desarrollar competencias sociales y emocionales al trabajar con compañeros con diferentes perspectivas. Por ejemplo, en una actividad de debate en la que los estudiantes compartían sus opiniones sobre temas sociales y culturales, pude observar cómo el intercambio de ideas entre personas con distintos antecedentes culturales enriqueció la discusión y permitió una mayor comprensión de los puntos de vista ajenos.

En resumen, los grupos heterogéneos favorecen el aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera al promover la cooperación, el intercambio cultural y el desarrollo de habilidades comunicativas. A pesar de los retos que implica su gestión, la diversidad en el aula puede ser una fuente valiosa de aprendizaje, no solo lingüístico sino también personal y social. Esta modalidad de agrupamiento puede ser especialmente beneficiosa si el docente es capaz de diseñar un entorno de aprendizaje inclusivo y colaborativo que responda a las necesidades de todos los estudiantes.

Referencias:

Centro Virtual Cervantes. (2014). Diccionario de términos claves de ELE. Competencia pluricultural. Recuperado de http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/diccio_ele/diccionario/comunidadhabla.htm

Ferrer Mora, H. (2014). La corrección de errores como proceso interactivo (p. 89). Recuperado de http://books.google.com.co/books?id=7V5IBvCKCOsC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82

González Ruiz, R., et al. (1994). Grupos heterogéneos: Un proyecto viable de enseñanza de español a extranjeros. Recuperado de http://cvc.cervantes.es/Ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/04/04_0205.pdf

Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte. (2014). Módulo 6: Aulas y prácticas educativas. Metodología del aula. Recuperado de http://www.ite.educacion.es/formacion/materiales/126/cd/unidad_6/mo6_metodologia_del_aula.htm

 

A06: El Uso de la Lengua Materna en la Enseñanza de Lenguas Extranjeras: Reflexiones y Prácticas Pedagógicas

El uso de la lengua materna (L1) en el aula de lenguas extranjeras ha sido un tema recurrente en el campo de la enseñanza de segundas lenguas (L2). Las decisiones sobre cuándo y cómo emplear la L1 durante el proceso de aprendizaje son diversas y deben basarse en la naturaleza del contenido que se enseña y en los objetivos pedagógicos. A continuación, se argumentarán las afirmaciones presentadas en relación con el uso de la L1 y el papel que debe jugar en el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa en una segunda lengua.

En primer lugar, la afirmación de que los profesores podrían utilizar textos en la lengua primera de los alumnos, pero que las tareas de comprensión siempre deberían requerir la expresión en español, tiene fundamentos válidos. La inclusión de la L1 puede facilitar la comprensión de ciertos conceptos complejos, especialmente al explicar aspectos gramaticales que podrían resultar abstractos para los estudiantes. Esto se alinea con la idea de un enfoque humanista que prioriza la comprensión emocional y cognitiva del estudiante, evitando la frustración que puede generar la completa exclusión de la L1 (Varón López, 2014). Sin embargo, para que los estudiantes desarrollen habilidades comunicativas efectivas en la L2, es crucial que las actividades diseñadas para la adquisición de la lengua se realicen en la L2. La interacción en el idioma meta permite que los alumnos no solo adquieran el vocabulario, sino que también aprendan a utilizarlo de manera creativa y funcional en contextos comunicativos diversos (González Ruiz et al., 1994). Como afirma Hymes (1972), la competencia comunicativa implica no solo la capacidad de generar oraciones gramaticalmente correctas, sino también de hacerlas apropiadas en función del contexto social, algo que solo se puede lograr con una inmersión progresiva en la L2.

En segundo lugar, la idea de que los estudiantes, al traducir vocabulario nuevo, crearán erróneamente una correspondencia exacta entre las palabras en español y sus propias lenguas también tiene un fundamento sólido. La enseñanza del vocabulario no debe basarse únicamente en una traducción directa, ya que las palabras en diferentes idiomas no siempre tienen una correspondencia exacta en sus significados, matices o connotaciones. Según el Diccionario de términos clave de ELE, las palabras en una lengua son unidades más complejas que solo signos lingüísticos, ya que incluyen componentes semánticos, pragmáticos y culturales (Centro Virtual Cervantes, 2014). Por ejemplo, un término como "sobremesa" no tiene un equivalente directo en muchos idiomas, lo que subraya la importancia de enseñar vocabulario en contextos y situaciones reales, para que los estudiantes comprendan no solo el significado, sino el uso social del término en la lengua objetivo.

En cuanto a la afirmación de que las instrucciones siempre deberían darse en ambas lenguas, pero primero en español, es pertinente reflexionar sobre el impacto de este enfoque en el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa. Si bien es comprensible que en situaciones de aprendizaje inicial se utilice la L1 para aclarar instrucciones o conceptos difíciles, un uso excesivo de la L1 puede obstaculizar la inmersión y el dominio de la L2. Según el modelo de competencia comunicativa de Hymes (1972), el aprendizaje de una lengua debe involucrar tanto la correcta producción gramatical como la capacidad para adaptarse a diferentes situaciones de comunicación. Es decir, los estudiantes deben ser capaces de usar el español de manera autónoma y natural, lo que requiere que las instrucciones y explicaciones se den preferentemente en la L2, especialmente cuando se busca fomentar una inmersión más profunda.

Finalmente, la interrelación entre las lenguas, también conocida como alternancia de códigos, es una estrategia válida en el aula, especialmente en contextos multilingües o cuando los estudiantes presentan dificultades para entender conceptos complejos en la L2. El Diccionario de términos clave de ELE resalta que la alternancia de códigos cumple diversas funciones, como clarificar significados, contextualizar un tema o facilitar la comprensión (Centro Virtual Cervantes, 2014). Sin embargo, su uso debe ser moderado y estratégico, ya que el objetivo es que los estudiantes progresivamente dependan menos de su lengua materna para expresarse en la L2. Como se observa en el ejemplo adaptado de E. Alonso (1994), en el cual un estudiante recurre a la L1 para comprender mejor un concepto, la alternancia puede ser útil en momentos de confusión, pero no debe convertirse en un recurso habitual.

En conclusión, el uso de la lengua materna en el aprendizaje de una segunda lengua debe ser considerado con cautela, buscando un equilibrio entre la necesidad de clarificar conceptos y el objetivo de promover la competencia comunicativa en la lengua meta. La enseñanza de la L2 debe incentivar el uso del idioma en contextos reales y diversos, evitando la dependencia excesiva de la L1. De acuerdo con los principios de la competencia comunicativa de Hymes (1972), los estudiantes deben desarrollar la habilidad de utilizar la lengua de manera adecuada, tanto desde el punto de vista gramatical como social, lo que solo se logra mediante una inmersión progresiva en la L2.

Referencias

Alonso, E. (1994). El uso de la lengua en el aula de lenguas extranjeras. Editorial Universitaria.

Centro Virtual Cervantes. (2014). Diccionario de términos claves de ELE. Recuperado de http://cvc.cervantes.es

González Ruiz, R., et al. (1994). Grupos heterogéneos: Un proyecto viable de enseñanza de español a extranjeros. Centro Virtual Cervantes.

Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. University of Pennsylvania Press.

Varón López, A. (2014). Fosilización y Adquisición de Segundas Lenguas. Revista de Lingüística y Literatura, 166, 108.

 

A07: El Pensamiento del Profesor y su Impacto en la Enseñanza: Reflexiones sobre las Creencias, Experiencias y Prácticas Docentes

En la práctica educativa, el pensamiento del profesor es un elemento clave que influye significativamente en la manera en que se lleva a cabo el proceso de enseñanza. El concepto de "pensamiento del profesor" no solo se refiere a cómo los docentes piensan, sino también a cómo sus creencias y perspectivas impactan directamente en su manera de enseñar. Aunque el rol del docente ha evolucionado, pasando de ser un transmisor de conocimientos a un orientador y facilitador del aprendizaje, su concepción del proceso pedagógico sigue siendo un factor determinante en su forma de enseñar. La manera en que un docente percibe su rol influye en la selección de métodos y estrategias para alcanzar los objetivos del proceso educativo (González Ruiz, 1994).

Por otro lado, las creencias de los profesores, construidas a partir de su experiencia profesional, no siempre tienen la mayor incidencia en cómo conducen la clase. Aunque la experiencia es un factor relevante, no es el único determinante en la calidad de la enseñanza. Factores como las habilidades de gestión del aula, la capacidad para adaptarse a situaciones imprevistas y la competencia en la toma de decisiones pedagógicas son igualmente esenciales. La experiencia docente, por sí sola, no garantiza el éxito en el aula; es necesario un enfoque holístico que integre múltiples competencias profesionales para abordar la complejidad del entorno educativo (Centro Virtual Cervantes, 2014).

El estudio del pensamiento del profesor, sin embargo, se puede lograr mediante un análisis de las decisiones que toma en las distintas fases del proceso de enseñanza. Este enfoque, que involucra la evaluación de las decisiones pre-, inter- y postactivas, permite a los docentes reflexionar sobre cómo presentan los contenidos, qué métodos emplean y cómo gestionan el aula para lograr los objetivos educativos. La autoevaluación en estas etapas es crucial para mejorar continuamente la práctica docente y adaptarse a las necesidades cambiantes del aula (Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, 2014).

A pesar de los avances en las teorías pedagógicas, los docentes no están exentos de repetir los comportamientos que aprendieron por observación en sus primeras experiencias educativas. Esta tendencia a replicar modelos de enseñanza anteriores, incluso cuando se promueven nuevas metodologías, es común en la práctica docente. La transición hacia enfoques más innovadores y centrados en el estudiante no es inmediata y requiere un tiempo significativo de adaptación. Este fenómeno es una de las razones por las cuales muchos docentes experimentan dificultades al implementar nuevos estilos de enseñanza (Bisaillon, 2014).

Asimismo, es importante señalar que el desajuste entre las teorías pedagógicas y la práctica real en el aula no es necesariamente un fenómeno generalizado. La realidad educativa es diversa, y los docentes suelen ajustar sus enfoques pedagógicos para que se adapten a los contextos culturales, sociales y económicos de sus estudiantes. Esto implica que, si bien las teorías pedagógicas pueden ofrecer marcos generales, los docentes deben adaptarlas a las realidades específicas de su entorno, logrando de esta manera un equilibrio entre la teoría y la práctica (Ferrer Mora, 2014).

En relación con las creencias que los profesores desarrollan desde una edad temprana, es cierto que estas creencias son difíciles de modificar, especialmente cuando los docentes poseen una gran experiencia. Estas creencias arraigadas tienden a influir en la manera en que los docentes gestionan el aula y en su aceptación de nuevas metodologías. Sin embargo, si bien estas creencias pueden ser resistentes al cambio, es posible fomentar la reflexión crítica y la apertura hacia nuevas prácticas mediante la formación continua y el apoyo institucional (Varón López, 2014).

Finalmente, la forma en que los docentes perciben a sus estudiantes tiene un impacto directo en sus decisiones pedagógicas. Los docentes desarrollan una visión de sus estudiantes basada en sus interacciones cotidianas, lo que influye en cómo seleccionan los métodos de enseñanza y adaptan sus estrategias de aprendizaje. Esta percepción también está vinculada con la concepción que el docente tiene sobre el aprendizaje de las lenguas, lo cual afecta tanto la planificación como la ejecución de las clases (Centro Virtual Cervantes, 2014).

En conclusión, el pensamiento del profesor es un elemento crucial que moldea la práctica educativa. A través de la reflexión sobre sus creencias, decisiones y comportamientos, los docentes pueden mejorar continuamente su enseñanza y adaptarse a los diversos contextos educativos. La capacidad de los profesores para integrar nuevas metodologías, reflexionar sobre su experiencia y comprender la individualidad de sus estudiantes son factores clave para lograr un entorno de aprendizaje efectivo y enriquecedor.

Referencias

Bisaillon, K. (2014). Why Good Teachers Quit. Recuperado de http://www.teachthought.com/teaching/why-good-teachers-quit/

Centro Virtual Cervantes. (2014). Diccionario de términos claves de ELE. Enseñanza de segundas lenguas. Recuperado de http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/diccio_ele/diccionario/ensenanzasegleng.htm

Ferrer Mora, H. (2014). La corrección de errores como proceso interactivo (p. 89). Recuperado de http://books.google.com.co/books?id=7V5IBvCKCOsC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=error+en+adquisici%C3%B3n+de+segundas+lenguas&source=bl&ots=uzL-ojTLSv&sig=-wHKDfqBadtp3tbx9M6fd37NlOs&hl=es-419&sa=X&ei=BMcxVOucFITMggTn34DABQ&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=error%20en%20adquisici%C3%B3n%20de%20segundas%20lenguas&f=false

González Ruiz, R. et al. (1994). Grupos heterogéneos: Un proyecto viable de enseñanza de español a extranjeros. Recuperado de http://cvc.cervantes.es/Ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/04/04_0205.pdf

Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte. (2014). Módulo 6: Aulas y prácticas educativas. Metodología del aula. Recuperado de http://www.ite.educacion.es/formacion/materiales/126/cd/unidad_6/mo6_metodologia_del_aula.htm

Varón López, A. (2014). Fosilización y Adquisición de Segundas Lenguas (ASL). Recuperado de http://human.kanagawa-u.ac.jp/gakkai/publ/pdf/no166/16609.pdf