Second Language Acquisition and Learning

 Understanding Second Language Acquisition

Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the subconscious processes by which learners develop the ability to use linguistic structures and forms in a second language (L2) for effective communication. This field provides educators with insights into how individuals encode and decode messages within specific social, cultural, and economic contexts. As Rod Ellis (1994) explains, “the main goal of SLA research is to characterize learners’ underlying knowledge of the L2, i.e., to describe and explain their competence” (p. 13). By analyzing these processes, teachers can better understand how learners adapt to the communicative demands of different contexts.

Behaviorism and Early Theories of SLA

One of the foundational theories of SLA is behaviorism, a psychological approach pioneered by scholars like J.B. Watson, Leonard Bloomfield, and B.F. Skinner. Behaviorists argue that language learning occurs through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. Students learn by responding correctly to stimuli, and their responses are shaped by positive or negative feedback from instructors. This approach emphasizes habit formation as a critical element in learning a second language.

As Dr. Mehuıet Demirezen (1988) notes, behaviorism “rests on the analyses of human behavior in observable stimulus-response interaction and the association between them” (p. 136). For instance, E.L.T. Thorndike explored how associations between behaviors and their consequences shape learning, while Skinner's operant conditioning model highlighted the role of reinforcement in habit formation. Wilga Rivers (1968) elaborates that “all learning [in behaviorism] is the establishment of habits as a result of reinforcement and reward” (p. 73).

The Audiolingual Method, a teaching approach inspired by behaviorism, emphasizes oral skills and systematic training in listening, pronunciation, and intonation. William Moulton (as cited in Richards & Rodgers, 1986) outlined key principles for this method, including the focus on spoken language and the necessity of habit formation to ensure linguistic accuracy. Students are encouraged to avoid errors, which are seen as potential barriers to learning, by engaging in structured drills that minimize linguistic interference from their first language (L1).

Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis

Contrastive Analysis (CA) and Error Analysis (EA) are theories that emerged from behaviorist principles. CA involves comparing the structures of L1 and L2 to predict potential learning difficulties. Errors in L2 often stem from linguistic interference, where habits from L1 influence L2 usage. For example, a Spanish speaker might say, “I have twenty years,” directly translating the grammatical structure of their native language into English.

Error Analysis, however, shifts the focus to the developmental process of L2 learners. As Richards (1971) states, it examines “differences between the way people learning a language speak and the way adult native speakers of the language use the language” (as cited in Khansir, 2012, p. 1027). This perspective acknowledges that learners construct hypotheses about L2 rules, refining their interlanguage—a dynamic system that blends elements of L1 and L2. Elaine Tarone (2006) describes interlanguage as “a linguistic system that is neither the native language nor the target language” (p. 748).

Interlanguage can stagnate, leading to fossilization, where incorrect structures persist despite instruction. Selinker (1972) emphasizes that “reappearance or reemergence in IL productive performance of linguistic structures...were thought to be eradicated” is a central issue in SLA (p. 216).

Creative Construction and Cognitive Theories

The Creative Construction Theory, proposed by Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982), suggests that learners construct mental representations of L2 based on their own rules and organize input to generate sentences. This theory aligns with Noam Chomsky’s concept of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), an innate mechanism that facilitates language learning. Chomsky posits that this system governs all human languages, enabling learners to acquire linguistic competence rapidly (as cited in Altenaichinger, 2002, p. 8).

Krashen’s Monitor Model, a cognitive theory, further explores how learners process L2 input. Its five hypotheses include:

1. The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis: Acquisition is a subconscious process akin to first language development, while learning is a conscious study of linguistic rules (Krashen, 1981).
2. The Natural Order Hypothesis: Grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable sequence.
3. The Monitor Hypothesis: Conscious learning acts as an editor to improve language output.
4. The Input Hypothesis: Comprehensible input slightly beyond the learner’s current level (i+1) is essential for acquisition (Klein, 1988, p. 54).
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis: Emotional factors like motivation and anxiety influence language acquisition.

Implications for SLA Research and Practice

The evolution of SLA theories—from behaviorism to cognitive approaches—has expanded our understanding of how individuals acquire a second language. These frameworks emphasize the importance of providing learners with meaningful input, minimizing fossilization, and fostering a supportive environment. Teachers must integrate these insights to create effective, learner-centered methodologies.

References

Demirezen, M. (1988). Behaviorist theory in language learning. [Publication details].

Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford University Press.

Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge University Press.

Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 10(3), 209-231.

Tarone, E. (2006). Interlanguage. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2, 747-753.